Kent State

Matt O’Keefe, Kent State

In the late 1960s and early 1970s the United States of America was in a time of crisis.  The Vietnam War was a major topic of discussion throughout the nation everywhere from the media, work places and college campuses.  In the spring of 1970 President Nixon ordered troops to invade Cambodia as a part of the Vietnam War.  Cambodia was long seen as a neutral territory during the war but communists had been setting up bases in the country.  The leader of Cambodia wanting to avoid more pressure from other countries ordered them to leave.  Nixon saw this as an opportunity to strike and ordered a secret bombing mission called Operation Menu to take out these bases despite heavy opposition from Washington.  This invasion caused nationwide protests.

One of the most infamous protests happened at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio on May 4th, 1970.  For the past few days students had been holding protests and rallies showing their opposition to Nixon’s actions.  They planned a big protest for Monday, the 4th.  The university caught wind of this and tried to stop it by handing out leaflets saying the rally was cancelled.  Despite this an estimated 2000 students attended the rally on the university commons.  The National Guard was called in to disperse the crowd.  They threatened students with arrest if they did not leave and when students still refused they released tear gas.  They then proceeded to advance upon the students with bayonets on their rifles and the students began to flee.  The National Guard troops followed a large group of students but took a wrong turn and found themselves stuck on an athletic field.  They stayed for ten minutes and did not want to go back they way they came because they felt people would see it as a retreat.  The students had come back in front of them and were about 100-200 feet away and began threatening them and throwing rocks and the tear gas canisters at them.  The officers then began to fire because of what appears to be a miscommunication.  29 officers fired 67 rounds in a 13 second span.  Some reports say there was a sniper who shot at the guardsmen, but this has been found to be not true.  In all 4 students were killed and 9 others injured.

Students were protesting the U.S. invasion of Cambodia but things escalated into riots, which caused authorities to feel threatened, and in turn open fire. The events at these campuses led to a nation wide student protest that shut down hundreds of college campuses (History.com 1970).  This movement showed that students could unite and get their voices heard including those at UMass and showed their resiliency and ability to overcome pressure from a force bigger than them to stand strong and tall for a position they deeply believed in.

The strike at UMass and surrounding universities was much less violent and riot-like yet had a very profound effect.  This was a movement that took place from late April to May in 1970 that was organized by students and some faculty.  Students who were involved did not go to class and held gatherings at various locations throughout the campus to try to get the word out about what they were doing to all students on campus.  With a college campus being a central location filled almost entirely of students it was very easy to find people to get involved with the cause.  Students would pass out flyers, write articles in The Daily Collegian, hold rallies, use word of mouth and other tactics to recruit people to become involved.  They were effective in getting many people to join in though there were people who did not want to get involved as there are with any other movement.

This movement developed very quickly once news broke of the travesties that took place at Kent State and then Jackson State.  Students hastily mobilized holding sit-ins and meetings to gather the troops so to speak.  “They would gather in places like Orchard Hill, the Student Center and Union and various other places throughout campus (Dean Albertson’s History 384 Oral History Collection, 1975- 1977)”.

The story was the same nationwide as campuses were being closed daily in the wake of what happened at Kent State and Jackson State.  “It is estimated that around 5,000,000 U.S. students joined the movement.  In response to the killings at those schools, students start using the phrase “They can’t kill us all” to let Nixon and authorities know that they weren’t afraid of a similar thing happening at other schools because they knew the government and police couldn’t and wouldn’t be able to do that nationwide from a legal and human rights standpoint.  Some universities took peaceful approaches while others took more violent ones that involved burning ROTC buildings down, firebombing and other forms of arson.  The National Guard had to be called into numerous states to attempt to calm things down (Canfora, 2006)”.  This was an issue that people felt very strongly about not only because they didn’t agree with the war, but also because the war directly impacted a lot of people’s lives.  All those soldiers over in Vietnam were someone’s father, brother, sister or mother.

In unison with what was going on nationwide students at UMass continued to do their part.  Various editorials and articles were written in the Collegian to keep students up to date with what was going on at other schools and with what was happening at UMass.  Members of the movement began to reach out to colleges and high schools in the area to attempt to strengthen the movement.  “One example was students going to Chicopee High School and meeting with the principal to discuss holding a rally there.  They had already begun holding workshops to tell the kids how they could become involved.  At first the principal agreed but later backed out.  This didn’t stop students though as they continued to educated the high school students just now without the school backing (Dean Albertson’s History 384 Oral History Collection, 1975- 1977)”.

Another part of this movement involved occupying the ROTC buildings on campus.  Students did this in response to the killings by the police in Kent State and to show how they were not happy with the troops being in Cambodia.  They vandalized Dickinson Hall, which is the home of the home of the ROTC program, and broke windows and other things within the building (Joulwan, “ROTC: An Academic Focus).

Rallies were held daily to tell people to keep fighting even with mounting opposition and warnings from the school’s administrators.  According to a journal entry by a student at the time found in the archives “Students were told that they would fail classes if they continued not to go and would not be granted exceptions (Radical Student Union Records)”.  While this caused some students to drop out of the movement or deterred them altogether from joining at all, it only made the students really involved want to fight and protest the issue even more to let the world know that they did have a voice and that it was just as important as the one’s in Washington D.C. making these decisions that they deemed appalling and wrong.  “Many student diaries and letters revealed that they accepted the repercussions that their actions entailed and were not going to let them deter them (Radical Student Union Records)”.

Throughout campus there was a lot of tension between students, administrators and authorities.  “Many students were blocking out the people trying to lay down rules and this concerned them because above all else they wanted to keep things peaceful.  They didn’t want anyone to get too pissed off that they would make some rash, ill-advised decision (UMass Amherst. Student Affairs, 1867-2007)”.  Yet at the same time the police and university officials wanted to maintain control and this put them in a tough spot.  The students knew they had the right gather and make their voices heard and weren’t going to listen to threats no matter how strong or empty the threat was.

In response to the university’s warning of them failing classes, many students took to talking with teachers or writing to them asking if they could just receive the grade they had earned up to that point in the class or simply just for a pass.  In the archives I found dozens of hand written notes, some long and detailed and others just a few short sentences, to a professor Dr. Liu asking for this exception.  “They explained that they believed that what was happening was bigger and more important than going to a class to take a final and pleaded with instructors to try to see it from their perspective and asking them what would they do if they were in the students’ shoes.  Some teachers heard their voices and agreed to the proposals while others told them that if they continued not to go to class they would have to deal with the consequences and just accept the failing grade (UMass Amherst. Student Affairs, 1867-2007)”.  This left students with a choice and many chose to continue the fight.

One student wrote in a letter, found in the archives, to another student in the movement that he would have to withdraw from the movement due to his parents’ warnings.  He felt terrible about not being able to continue to fight but felt he had no choice if he wanted to remain in school.  He said he would remain active in spirit but would be forced to withdraw from demonstrations and return to class (UMass Amherst. Student Affairs, 1867-2007).  Instances like these angered some of the people more heavily involved in the movement, while other were more understanding, because they believed that everyone had something to lose and that they were all making sacrifices for something that was bigger than anyone of them.

The effects of this strike were even felt over in Vietnam as many soldiers wore black armbands to remember people killed at home and many even refused to advance into Cambodia because of what was going on on the home front.  Rallies were held on military bases in ordinance with what people, specifically students, were doing back in the U.S.  Veterans joined movement and some soldiers and military leaders just flat out refused to fight (Canfora 2006).

After the war, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18, which was a major victory for students.  It was also finally decided that students would receive a pass for missing classes and finals so nobody was harmed academically.  This happened at hundreds of universities nationwide and showed that there was enough pressure and support for their movement not to punish them academically.  It also may have been a way for universities to save face on the situation and not look like the bad guys in this instance.  The troops stayed in Vietnam for a few years until a peace treaty was but protests did eventually die down across campuses but their were still going on nationwide until 1973.

Citations

 

Canfora, Alan.  HISTORICAL IMPACT OF KENT STATE and THE NATIONAL STUDENT STRIKE – May, 1970.  March 16, 2006.  http://alancanfora.com/?q=node/8.  April 7, 2011

 

Dean Albertson’s History 384 Oral History Collection, 1975- 1977.  Call no.: MS 224.  Special Collections and University Archives, University Libraries, University of Massachusetts Amherst.

 

 

History.com.  Vietnam War, May 6, 1970.  http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/students-launch-nationwide-protest.  April 7, 2011

 

 

UMass Amherst. Student Affairs, 1867-2007.  Call no.: RG 30.  Special Collections and University Archives, University Libraries, University of Massachusetts Amherst.

 

 

Radical Student Union Records.  Call no.: RG 45/80 R1. Box 16.5.  Special Collections and University Archives, University Libraries, University of Massachusetts Amherst

 

Joulwan, George A. “ROTC: An Academic Focus.” Military Review: 11. Print.

“Three Decades Ago, Commencement Was a Sober Mix of Pomp and Protest.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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    روش کنترات: در این روش از محاسبه، نقاش ساختمان با بررسی منزل از نظر تعداد اتاق، متراژ حدودی و شرایط دیگر، یک قیمت کلی برای نقاشی منزل اعلام می‌کند. قیمت اعلام شده در این روش معمولا به تفکیک اعلام نمی‌شود و نقاش تنها مبلغ نهایی را اعلام می‌کند.
    روش متراژ: در این روش از محاسبه، نقاش با بررسی منزل از نظر متراژ و شرایط کلی، هزینه نقاشی ساختمان را به تفکیک اعلام می‌کند. در این روش، هزینه نقاشی دیوارها و سقف، هزینه خرید رنگ و لوازم، دستمزد نقاش و موارد دیگر به تفکیک محاسبه می‌شود و مبلغ نهایی که از سمت نقاش اعلام می‌شود مجموع این هزینه‌هاست. قیمت نقاشی ساختمان با رنگ پلاستیک را می‌توانید ببینید.

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    • روش‌های محاسبه قیمت نقاشی ساختمان
      نحوه محاسبه قیمت نقاشی ساختمان را عوامل متعددی بسنگی دارد که در ادامه این صفحه از خدمات آنلاین “استاده” به آن‌ها خواهیم پرداخت. هر یک از این عوامل در کنار عوامل دیگر در تعیین هزینه‌های نقاشی ساختمان موثر است و باید تمام فاکتورها در تعیین هزینه بررسی شوند.

      محاسبه قیمت نقاشی ساختمان معمولا دو حالت دارد. این روش‌ها عبارتند از:

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  85. Damavand mountain was formed in the fourth geological period, ie the Holocene period, and in the Assyrian period, Damavand mountain was mentioned as a lapis lazuli ore, so that during the Assyrian war, this mountain was considered part of the Median land. Who were living on the slopes of Damavand. This has led to a large number of prehistoric tombs on the slopes of Damavand. Various kingdoms settled in the area at different times.
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  86. Climbing Damavand peak must be done with professional mountaineering groups and individual climbing to this mountain is not recommended. Essentials when climbing this mountain is one of the necessities specified by the program guide, but in general the necessary accessories can be a backpack, sleeping bag, clothes suitable for the season you are climbing.
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  87. Traditional Bazaars: Tajrish and the Grand Bazaar

    Bazaars are Tehran’s inner cities. Believe it or not, Tehran’s Grand Bazaar is 10 km long. With so many corridors and a couple of entrances, the southern bazaar in the more traditional parts of Tehran is a city within a city. Walking in the bazaar is a beautiful experience: the ceiling beautifully lets in a ray of sun, barely touching your skin, while the smell of spices from all parts of the world, takes you to foreign lands.

    Tajrish bazaar, however, is a bit different from our typical bazaar all around Iran. Bazaars are usually the heart of a traditional part of town, while Tajrish bazaar is located in the north of the city, where the more affluent families of Tehran live. Usually part of Tehran sightseeing plans, Tajrish Bazaar is a great place to spend an evening while also visiting the neighboring holy shrine, when the devoted come to pray.
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  88. How Hard Is Damavand Trekking?

    Climbing Damavand in Iran is a great challenge that is accessible for all. It does require you to be physically and mentally prepared, like climbing Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Elbrus. However, it does not need too intense of a training program for you to be able to ascend the summit. Generally, Mountaineering in Iran is alpine style, which means ascending Iran mountain summits is easy, especially if you’re in a fit and healthy state. Iran mountain tours require simple gear, and most summits are easily accessible due to their short distance to the cities. Thus Damavand trekking does not take much time, and reaching its peak only takes about four days. Also, due to the low cost of iranamaze.com/iran-tours, Damavand trekking tours are much more affordable than similar ones in other countries.
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  89. Don’t miss spectacular views!

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    Meet and feel Persian culture

    Iran is a rich country in historical stories which turn different items of this country into valuable symbols. One of them is mount Damavand, a symbol of strength and resistance based on folk stories. Therefore, the Damavand trekking tour can be considered as a culture adventuring tour either.
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  90. Just like I cannot see the number of knots of a Persian carpet from afar, this 5-day tour took me far into the more profound stories of the mystical land of Iran. Let me tell you the story of my trip through the itinerary. So, Maybe you decide to come to stand on this carpet and create your own knots of a journey through Iran!
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  92. I walked through the Golestan Palace and the Grand Bazaar to see the majestic as well as the everyday lifestyle of Iranians in the 19th century. In the National Museum, I watched a brief demo of what I’m going to see in travel to ancient Persia.
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  93. My father always told me how special Grand Bazaar was to him. Also, he kept telling me the many memories he had there since he was a child. The smell of Kebab with the many colors of the handicrafts hanging on the little stores’ walls. The old generation hand in hand with the young walking through the narrow alleys of Bazaar made me understand why it is damn special.
    Road tripping in the middle of jungles and mountains of the north of Iran. It made me realize how some parts of Iran are very similar to California!
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  96. we’ll get lost in the rhythm and harmony of hundreds of men showing their grief through collective movements and songs. Also, hundreds of locals and tourists will surround us in Yazd, who have come to create a memorable collective experience of the authentic Ashura ceremony as well.
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  109. Damavand mountain was formed in the fourth geological period, ie the Holocene period, and in the Assyrian period, Damavand mountain was mentioned as a lapis lazuli ore, so that during the Assyrian war, this mountain was considered part of the Median land. Who were living on the slopes of Damavand. This has led to a large number of prehistoric tombs on the slopes of Damavand. Various kingdoms settled in the area at different times.

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  146. Is Online Arbitrage Legal?
    The Online Arbitrage Deals process is generally legal. But you have to be careful to follow the terms of buying and selling. For example, the products of a brand may be sold only by authorized sellers. Before starting your work process, you should know the terms of buying and selling the product.
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    There are several steps you can take to begin the Amazon Online Arbitrage process. The steps are summarized as follows:
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  178. Different Types of Online Arbitrage
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    Online Arbitrage

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  257. The first patented printing mechanism for applying a marking medium to a recording medium or more particularly an electrostatic inking apparatus and a method for electrostatically depositing ink on controlled areas of a receiving medium, The ink was a red stamp-pad ink manufactured by Phillips Process Company of Rochester, NY under the name Clear Print. The first commercial printers generally used mechanisms from electric typewriters and Teletype machines.
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  268. In the late 1960s and early 1970s the United States of America was in a time of crisis. The Vietnam War was a major topic of discussion throughout the nation everywhere from the media, work places and college campuses. In the spring of 1970 President Nixon ordered troops to invade Cambodia as a part of the Vietnam War. Cambodia was long seen as a neutral territory during the war but communists had been setting up bases in the country. The leader of Cambodia wanting to avoid more pressure from other countries ordered them to leave. Nixon saw this as an opportunity to strike and ordered a secret bombing mission called Operation Menu to take out these bases despite heavy opposition from Washington. This invasion caused nationwide protests.
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  271. What is Retail Arbitrage?
    Another simple concept is Retail Arbitrage is the act of going to local brick and mortar stores to find and buy discounted products and selling them at a higher price in an online marketplace like Amazon.

    Before the Pandemic, Retail Arbitrage was a popular business model for those who wanted just to start their business and earn some money from a side hustle.
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  273. کارتن سازی و جعبه سازی فاطر مجهز به پیشرفته ترین دستگاه های به روز در زمینه تولید و فروش انواع کارتن خشکبار در خدمت مشتریان میباشد. هر چند خشکبار تاریخ مصرف نسبتا طولانی دارند، اما بدیهی است که برای حفظ ارزش غذایی آن ها شرایط نگهداری مناسبی را باید فراهم کرد. بسته بندی یکی از مهم ترین نکاتی است که در جابجایی، نگه داری و افزایش فروش خشکبار اهمیت فراوانی دارد. همچنین زیبایی و جذاب بودن کارتن و جعبه خشکبار در بسته بندی ها از عوامل بسیار تاثیرگذار در بازاریابی و فروش این محصولات ارزشمند به ویژه در زمینه صادرات آن ها به شمار می آید.

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  274. برای خرید و سفارش از یک کارخانه کارتن سازی مجهز، پیشرفته، معتبر و با تجربه چیزی که قبل از خرید باید بدانید این است که ابعاد و سازی که در نظر دارید مشخص کنید و سپس بر اساس وزن محصول و محلی که قرار است به آن جا ارسال شود جنس کارتن و مقوای به رفته در بسته بندی را انتخاب کنید پس از آن باید نوع چاپ روی کارتن را مشخص کنید.

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  276. تعمیر مبلمان تنها در صورت فرسودگی آن انجام نمی گیرد، بسیاری از افراد به دنبال تغییر دکوراسیون و ایجاد تنوع، اقدام به تعمیر مبلمان خود می کنند. تعمیرات مبل را می توان به عنوان یک حرفه کاملا تخصصی در نظر گرفت و مجموعه ای که در این بخش فعالیت می کند، بایستی از تخصص و تجربه کافی برخوردار باشد تا بتواند با ظرافت کامل و بدون آسیب و همچنین به صورت اصولی، تعمیرات مبل را انجام دهد.

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